A decade into digital learning, critical thinking remains elusive

Despite a decade of digital transformation in higher education, critical thinking remains an elusive objective in distance learning programs, particularly within the Greek educational context. A comprehensive study titled “Critical Thinking in Distance Education: The Challenges in a Decade (2016–2025) and the Role of Artificial Intelligence”, published in Education Sciences, explores how this essential skill has developed, or failed to develop, in postgraduate distance education.

The study relies on qualitative insights from 30 participants across two postgraduate programs, comparing perspectives from 2016 and 2025. Through thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with tutors and students, the research investigates how pedagogical strategies, student engagement, and emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) have influenced the cultivation of critical thinking in online education. It uncovers systemic failures in traditional and digital pedagogies, while highlighting both the promises and perils of AI integration.

Why is critical thinking still neglected in the educational system?

One of the study’s most consistent findings is the systemic failure of the Greek educational system to nurture critical thinking, from primary education through university. Despite official curriculum guidelines and political rhetoric promoting the concept, both students and tutors reported that critical thinking is rarely demanded, modeled, or evaluated in meaningful ways. Instead, educational practices favor memorization, rote learning, and reproduction of textbook content.

Tutors interviewed in both 2016 and 2025 repeatedly emphasized that students often arrive in postgraduate programs lacking basic skills in analysis, synthesis, and argumentation. These deficiencies are not simply personal shortcomings, the study asserts, but structural results of a system that prioritizes exam performance over inquiry and reflective learning. Many tutors pointed out that the absence of clear guidelines or examples for cultivating critical thinking only compounds the problem. Students, meanwhile, admitted they often performed to the minimum requirement, aiming to fulfill procedural obligations without deeper engagement.

Even when educational activities purportedly encourage critical thinking, such as writing assignments or theses, the process often falls short. Students tend to quote sources mechanically rather than critically engage with them. This challenge is particularly acute in distance education, where face-to-face interactions that might stimulate debate or spontaneous reflection are absent.

What teaching practices foster or hinder critical thinking online?

The research underscores the importance of well-designed instructional materials and assignments in fostering critical thinking in digital learning environments. Tutors agreed that materials with embedded case studies, judgment-based questions, and prompts for reflection offered students opportunities to analyze, compare, and synthesize ideas. Assignments that demand personal interpretation, literature reviews, and data analysis were cited as effective mechanisms for critical thinking development.

Yet, a significant finding is that not all students possess the readiness or inclination to engage critically. The most frequently cited pedagogical gaps include: lack of feedback clarity from tutors, inconsistent evaluation standards for subjective assignments, and student confusion about what critical thinking actually involves. Many participants mentioned a strong desire for more interactive guidance from tutors—particularly in navigating how to critique sources, build arguments, and apply theoretical concepts.

The research also revealed that some educational environments unintentionally discourage critical thinking. When students perceived tutors as dismissive of alternative viewpoints, or when grading criteria were ambiguous, they were less likely to risk original thought. In contrast, learning environments that supported exploratory thinking, encouraged self-regulation, and provided constructive feedback enabled stronger development of critical faculties.

The thesis and research process were identified as key opportunities for critical thinking growth. However, students frequently reported that these projects required a steep learning curve. Deep familiarity with subject matter and ability to synthesize conflicting views were essential, yet many students had never been trained in such skills prior to their postgraduate studies.

Can artificial intelligence help or hurt critical thinking development?

In the 2025 phase of the study, participants were asked to evaluate how AI tools had influenced the critical thinking process. The responses were nuanced, revealing both benefits and serious risks. On the positive side, tutors and students praised AI's ability to assist with preliminary research, source discovery, and draft generation. AI tools were considered especially useful in expediting literature reviews, offering students access to broader and more diverse data sets.

However, the convenience of AI also posed significant cognitive risks. Students admitted that it was tempting to rely on AI-generated content without evaluating its credibility or aligning it with academic standards. Tutors expressed concern that this dependency could lead to the erosion of analytical skills, as students might bypass the reflective processes necessary for deep understanding.

Critically, the study suggests that AI's impact on critical thinking depends on how the tools are used. When students actively interrogated AI outputs, compared them with peer-reviewed literature, and integrated them into their own reasoning, AI became a useful scaffold for deeper learning. Conversely, when AI was used merely to automate responses or simplify tasks, it undermined the very skills it purported to support.

The study calls for a deliberate strategy to embed AI literacy into academic programs. Educators must teach students not just how to use these tools, but how to question them, evaluate their outputs, and reflect on their epistemological assumptions. The success of AI in education will depend not on the technology itself, but on the critical awareness of its users.